導語：如何才能寫好一篇鷹與蛇，這就需要搜集整理更多的資料和文獻，歡迎閱讀由公文云整理的十篇范文，供你借鑒。

篇1

篇2

關鍵詞: 語用預設英語聽力意義

一、前言

在英語教學中,聽力作為一種基本語言技能越來越受到英語教師的重視。然而,聽力理解對許多學生來說是一個頗為困難的環(huán)節(jié)。究其原因,學習者往往只注重語音、詞匯、語法等語言知識的提高,而忽略了結合語境因素對語言材料的推理。根據(jù)信息處理原則,聽力理解是受話者有目的地運用儲存在大腦里的原有信息,對收到的信息進行選擇、整理加工從而獲得新信息,語用預設信息作為語篇信息流的起點引出新信息,新信息繼而又轉化為后來語篇中的預設信息。

二、語用預設的概念

語用預設的研究開始于語義預設的研究,由于語義預設自身概念的矛盾特點促使越來越多的學者從其他視角考慮語用預設,不再把預設簡單地認為是真值預設或邏輯預設;而是加入語境的知識,認為是話語恰當性的條件?！坝袝r人們說一個命題預設另一個命題,有時人們說一句語句(在它的表層形式上)預設一個命題,有時人們說一個人在說一個語句的時候預設了某些東西。語言學家偶爾也說一個詞預設了一個命題”。[1]邏輯學家、語言學家們發(fā)現(xiàn),越是深入研究預設理論就越離不開語境的分析,語言外的因素成為影響預設有效傳達的關鍵。促使學者們拋開原有的真值條件的語義預設,而更加注重把預設作為一種語用推理去研究。當然這種趨勢也是由于語義預設在概念問題上尚未清晰,預設理論上的不可消除性與預設事實上的可消除性矛盾促使語言學家和邏輯學家從語境的范疇重新審視預設的語用功能。

由于語用預設研究時間尚短,一些基本問題尚在探索中,包括各種理論的融合還有待完善,所以目前還沒有一個普遍接受的定義,根據(jù)不同學者知識背景,定義不盡相同。有的理解較寬泛,有的理解較狹窄,筆者認為歸結起來有兩種主要的方式。

第一種從言語交際行為出發(fā),把有效言語交際行為作為預設必須滿足的條件。認為預設不能單獨構成話語的語句意義,只是為運用話語創(chuàng)造基礎,使言語活動能達到交際的目的。如黃華新教授和陳宗明教授認為,“語用預設可以一般地表述為:一個語句S預設命題P(或P是S的預設),當且僅當,使得語句S具有恰當性”。當然,在運用語用預設規(guī)則中,“除了滿足條件以外還有排除條件。也就是說,一個語句S預設命題P,如果同說話人遵守合作原則或語境因素相矛盾,則命題P被取消”。

另一種理解是從言語交際功能出發(fā),把語用預設看作是實際雙方所共有的背景知識,認為自然語言就是要在一定語境中起到成功交際的作用,即說話人說出話語,或聽話人理解話語都要加入語境的某些因素。

三、語用預設的特征

(一)語用預設具有共識性

人類社會的復雜性是與人腦的高度發(fā)展分不開的,而思維的表達大部分是通過人類的言語表達的,這就造成了人類言語在交際過程中的復雜性。

長期的社會生活使人們以最少信息量傳達最大意思成為共識,在交際中往往省略雙方已知的信息,或者說話者認為聽話者已知的共同背景知識,而這部分省略的信息就是語用預設的共識性。預設的共識性是指說話雙方的共同知道的事物,即第三者如不了解預設而只依靠語境,則不一定能真正理解說話雙方對話內容。

例:關于小李、小王選派出國的對話。

A:我看,這次出國的名額很難落到小李的頭上。

B:噢,我也有同感,小王各方面條件都優(yōu)于小李,應該是小王。

A:沒錯!

在以上兩者的對話中,顯而易見他們的交際取得成功,各自表達了自己的想法,并且二者在對話中都已明確雙方的共同知識背景。即單位選派出國人選在小李與小王二者之間,不是小李就是小王,不會有其他人出現(xiàn)。并且當A說小李難選上時,邏輯必然地推出小王能選上。

(二)語用預設具有主觀性

語用預設具有主觀性,是指說話者帶有斷言性質的語境假設,本身并不具備必然的真實性或正確性。在言語交際前,雙方并不知道對方各自的語用預設的背景知識范圍,而只能是在不斷深入的交流中,通過自己的判斷和雙方交際過程中相互質證和認證的過程中實現(xiàn),但有時這種證實又不能始終保持正確。此時就需要雙方修正各自的背景知識范圍,達到最大程度上的同構。

例如:“今天的《參考消息》要下午送來,爺爺只好出去遛彎了?！闭f話者在說出這一命題時,是自己主觀上認為聽話者能夠理解“爺爺每天上午要看《參考消息》”的,比如說話者面對的聽者是同住一起的姐姐或是奶奶,那么這樣的語用預設就能夠被聽話者所理解,并將進一步運用到下一步的交際中。但是如果面對的聽話者不是自己的家人而是送報紙的郵遞員,郵遞員也許就不會有與其家人一樣的背景知識,僅僅可能會認為每天這家的老人只是取報紙而已,報紙有可能是為這家里其他人定的,比如爸爸?？梢?在說話者說出這一預設時,聽話者并不一定能夠領會,是說話者自己主觀上斷定的,能否能成為交際中合適的預設還要等聽話者的回應才能作出。

(三)語用預設具有隱蔽性

語用預設具有隱蔽性,是指語用預設并不是從字面意思就可以得到的,是隱含在語句中的,需要聽話者自己去挖掘。如果不留神就會把預設的“斷言”看作是真實的而加以接受,就會陷于復雜問句中,置自己于被動地位。復雜問句的本質是語用預設的隱蔽性,是言語交際的隱含前提。例如對一名檢察官來說,當他在詢問犯罪嫌疑人是否有作案嫌疑時,他可能會這樣說:“你是幾點離開案發(fā)現(xiàn)場的?”在這種情況下,無論犯罪嫌疑如何回答,都已承認到過案發(fā)現(xiàn)場。當然,在我國社會主義法治建設逐漸完善的今天,這樣帶有誘導式的審訊方式已經(jīng)不存在

了,但作為一種有效交際的方式在法律界的其他領域,語用預設還是有著它的生命力的。

四、語用預設與英語聽力

預設對語境因素十分敏感,并且與說話人和其他語言外因素有密切的關系。有時說話人會根據(jù)語用預設在具體語境中的體現(xiàn)方式和隱含意義,將預設進行改變,從而實現(xiàn)自己的語用意圖。也就是說,在具體的語言環(huán)境中,一個話語可能有多個預設,一個預設也可能有多重含義,即預設的“語境多維性”。

在有些情況下,語用預設是通過明確的標示,如預設的觸發(fā)語(trigger)來表示出來的。但在有些情況下,語用預設則表現(xiàn)得不那么明顯,這就需要學生運用語用推理推導出話語中隱含的語用預設,從而正確理解會話含義。下面,筆者通過實例,分析測試者如何在聽力測試中運用語用預設來考查受試者的語篇理解能力。

(一)對話理解

1.推斷說話者之間的關系

W:This is the third time you’ve been late this week,Robert,you’ll have to do better than that,or I might find it necessary to let you go.

M:It won’t happen again,I assure you.

Q:Who spoke to Robert?

通過這道題,我們了解到女士說的Robert這個星期已經(jīng)是第三次遲到了,還有像“l(fā)et go”這樣的信息。通常是老板解雇雇員,這是本題所蘊含的語用預設。因此,通過這一預設我們不難判斷出,說話雙方的關系是老板與雇員之間的關系。

2.推斷引申含義

M:The light in the dining room is a little too bright,don’t you think so?

W:It’s perfect for a football stadium.

Q:What does the woman mean?

足球場必須燈光通明,而西方餐廳流行幽暗朦朧的燈光是本題的這一具體語境的語用預設。在此預設的基礎上進行分析推理,就可以得出那位女士說的話是同意先生的意見的。

(二)短文填空

短文主要是考查考生對文章達意、中心思想、重要事件的理解和領會,以及根據(jù)所獲得的相關信息對文中的某些細節(jié)作出聯(lián)想、判斷,也有就短文中的某一事實和任務進行提問的題目。在聽力短文測試中,考生不要期望字字句句都聽得真切,抓住短文中最能反映主旨大意和主題的關鍵詞匯或短語分析出短文的語用預設,然后進行成功推斷才是重要的聽力策略。

五、結語

語用預設作為交際雙方共有的背景知識,對言語信息傳遞起著不容忽視的作用。聽者只有與發(fā)話者建構同一預設信息,才能達到理解話語的目的。在英語聽力教學中,教師要有意識地講授一些相關的預設知識,引導學生根據(jù)聽力文字材料和答案選項等線索,從中發(fā)現(xiàn)一些背景預設信息,以縮小談話者的話題范圍,最后推斷出聽話人所需的信息。

參考文獻:

[1]中國人民大學哲學系邏輯教研室.邏輯學.北京:中國人民大學出版社,2003:79-84.

[2]鄒崇理.邏輯.語言與信息.北京:人民出版社,2002:76-78.

[3]黃華新,陳宗明.描述語用學.長春:吉林人民出版社,2005:135.

[4]熊學亮.語言學新解.上海:復旦大學出版社,2003:15-18.

[5]張春泉.語用邏輯芻議.浙江社會科學.2004.5:148.

[6]何向東,袁正校.交際意圖――語用推理的目標.自然辯證法研究增刊.2000.6:67.

篇3

到環(huán)境稍微獨特有新意的飯店，很自然地都會拿出手機先拍上一番，每上一道菜，先不動筷子，都先攝像頭“吃”個飽。

旅行景區(qū)更是不用說了，不知道有多少人是真正地聽導游解說，多少人是真的用自己的內眼去欣賞，因為幾乎能看到一水的手機攝像抵著那些古色古香的景與物。

其實不用說遠的，就單單是在家附近的公園，每逢有藍天白云的天氣，碰上繁花掛滿枝葉，就會讓路過的行人，游人停下腳步，好好地拍攝一番。

手機的攝像功能越來越高端，只要能調好角度，選好景色，光線，加上手機自帶的美顏功能，基本上都能拍出不錯的效果。

之前也見過一些有專業(yè)攝影裝備的人，長槍短炮地對著一朵花，一片葉，我不知道他們拍出來的效果是什么樣的，不過大多人也是一種興趣吧。

今天去跑步的時候，看到一位大叔在一片花前拍照，細看才發(fā)現(xiàn)，他是以花為底，實則拍的是花的前方的一座古剎，不用想就知道肯定很美。

篇4

本片中的官方宣傳海報中，有一個穿著紅衣服的小女孩，這在一個黑白電影中顯得尤為特別，可見作者對于這個色彩應用的重視?，F(xiàn)代電影越來越注重色彩的應用，色彩不僅僅是電影語言的基本構成原元素，也更加是一種藝術手法，色彩的運用不僅僅是對生活的本色的還原，更是多層次的以及有深度的呈現(xiàn)，《辛德勒名單》是一部黑白片，除了黑白色彩的強烈反差，本片的色調相對來說較為暗淡，這也為整部片子奠定了一個陰暗、悲愴的情感基調，與電影的主題和內容結合緊密，斯皮爾伯格在拍攝這部電影的時候曾經(jīng)說，他除了黑白色別無選擇，盡管本片的色調是黑白為主的冷色系，但導演還是巧妙地安排了清涼和明朗的顏色，就是那個在大屠殺之前穿著血色裙子的小女孩，在黑白色為主的電影中，那個紅色顯得那么的美麗和鮮艷甚至刺眼，足夠引起觀眾的重視和思考，紅色裙子的設定分別在是片頭和片尾部分，到第二次出現(xiàn)的時候，穿紅色裙子的孩子躺在了堆積如山的尸體上，并瞬間被無盡的灰暗所吞噬，顯然她并沒有走進辛德勒的名單里。這也是本片色彩運用的亮點，它的暗示和象征意義非常明顯，就是讓觀眾去思考和深思，紅色代表著生機和活力，被無盡的黑暗吞噬也象征著人類歷史上那段慘無人道的歷史，緊扣本片的主題，象征著泯滅人性的德國納粹對于人類生存和希望的毀滅，這種明顯的暗示所產(chǎn)生的視覺和心理的沖擊力是巨大的，而且也非常容易理解，是導演獨具匠心的色彩安排，也是本片色彩藝術的重要體現(xiàn)。值得一提的是，本片的片尾部分是用彩色畫面拍攝的，特別是很多被奧斯卡救下來的猶太人的后人紛紛來到這里紀念他們的救命恩人，一個個的小石子以及鮮艷的花兒，都表達著人們濃濃的情意，結局部分的場景是在一個山丘上，整體的拍攝手法是采用高調攝影，色彩相對柔和、輕快，這里的色彩運用體現(xiàn)著導演對于和平和美好的贊美，也對于觀眾有一定的撫慰作用，結局的美好也象征著電影“善”主題的回歸。

二、電影音樂欣賞

合理的電影音樂對于電影劇情的推動、情感表達有著非常重要的作用。音樂鑒賞也是電影欣賞設計的重要環(huán)節(jié)，那些或激情、或舒緩、或輕快的音樂真實而細膩地表現(xiàn)了電影的情感，也體現(xiàn)著一個導演內心世界的主觀感受。影片中有一幅場景是，為了避免尸體腐爛引起的瘟疫以及掩蓋罪證，納粹人開始將堆積如山的尸體進行焚燒，高大的煙囪冒著濃濃的黑煙，這個時候舒緩的古典音樂響起，并配合男女聲的伴唱充分地融合，像是一聲聲微弱的哭訴直擊觀眾的心靈，這個時候的音樂與畫面的結合恐怕只能用熨帖兩個字來形容了，正是音樂與畫面的這種完美貼合，將影片的主題發(fā)揮到了極致。片中對于音樂的運用并不刻意強調調動觀眾的情感，更加是一種平和的自然的描述，是隨著情節(jié)的展開一氣呵成的，甚至通篇來看，幾乎都是非常柔和的抒情方式，好像是一個人在平靜地講故事，而不是有意帶動觀眾的情緒，這大概是對于音樂運用的最高境界了。也說明了斯皮爾伯格對于電影藝術的獨特見解，音樂自然運用也給了觀眾足夠的想象空間，平和的電影音樂不會干擾觀眾對電影的理解和判斷，反而更加能夠觸發(fā)觀眾的情感共鳴，更加有助于觀眾去思考和理解電影所要傳達的深刻的思想內涵。

三、電影的敘事風格

本片作為一部文藝電影，在全球獲得了3.21億美元的票房實屬難得，這與本片的敘事結構有著非常重要的關系。很多的文藝電影相對來說比較枯燥，導演過多地強調電影的文藝性而忽視了故事性，非常影響觀眾的觀影體驗，畢竟電影的根本目的是來講故事的，而電影的敘事結構和風格對于電影敘事有著直接的關系。本片將當時重大的歷史事件濃縮到了一個人的命運當中。也就是說電影是有著兩條敘事線索的，一個是主角本身，另一個是歷史背景?！缎恋吕彰麊巍肥菤v史紀實電影，本身就屬于非常嚴肅的歷史題材，因此本片主要的敘事風格和技巧體現(xiàn)在以人物為主線的敘事過程中，通過人物本身的經(jīng)歷、情感真實地表現(xiàn)出一個完整的故事，并讓觀眾去感受這個故事，是本片敘事結構的主要特點。從理論上分析，本片的敘事結構是采用一個個片段的動作關系和時間關系的組合，每個自然的片段之間并沒有直接的因果關系，這既是歷史紀實電影的特點，也是本片想要刻意強調的，即它不再是一部電影，而是一段段真實歷史的再現(xiàn)，讓觀眾在觀影過程中產(chǎn)生強烈的真實感和代入感，比如對于集中營的描寫顯得非常散亂，表面上看似隨意穿來街頭的槍殺、焚尸等情節(jié)的設定，實際上是有目的的組織和安排，與本片直線型的敘事結構有著很好的輔助作用。盡管這種自然客觀的敘事結構和風格并無太多技巧而言，但正是由于歷史中荒誕、諷刺、矛盾的現(xiàn)實，才讓本片的故事富有生機。例如德國人接受了猶太工程師的意見以后直接將其槍殺，德國上尉殺人如麻卻每每打不出子彈，火車錯誤地開進了奧斯維辛集中營，這些片段的設置情節(jié)發(fā)展所必須的，并非是毫無組織的散亂的歷史片段，始終是圍繞影片的主題來開展的。每一個歷史片段的設置都與情節(jié)有著深刻的聯(lián)系，或者其內在本身就是敘事的重要環(huán)節(jié)，比如片尾部分猶太人走向了地平線時，象征著內在意義上的自由和新生。另外本片的敘事風格也在其鏡頭語言中有所體現(xiàn)，為了真實還原歷史場景，本片大量的在波蘭實地取景，甚至歷史的場景和片段都是真實的畫面，以此來表現(xiàn)那個動蕩年代的真實情況。

四、結語

篇5

[Key words]: Euphemism， application， social influence， positive， negative

【摘 要】 語言交際是人類以維系社會關系的重要手段，因而人們在交際中通常避免使用引起雙方不快從而損害雙方關系的語言，而是采取迂回曲折的方法來表達思想，交流信息，它不僅是種語言現(xiàn)象，而且是社會現(xiàn)象和文化現(xiàn)象。委婉語言體現(xiàn)了相應的社會文化傳統(tǒng)。本文主要闡述了英語委婉語的構成方法以及它的社會影響，并著重從修辭手段，語義手段，構詞手段及語法手段對委婉語言作了較全面的分析，并對委婉語在交際中的語用功能和表達方式做了一些探討，從委婉語的“避諱”功能，“禮貌”功能和“掩飾”功能三個方面探討了委婉語在社會生活中的運用，了解委婉語在運用中的積極作用和消極作用， 有助于我們更深入的了解英語國家人們的思維方式、社會價值觀、道德觀以及文化風俗，對于提高自身言語交際功能是十分必要的。

【關鍵詞】 委婉語； 運用； 社會影響; 積極；消極

1. Introduction

Euphemism is originally from Greek， meaning， “speak with gook words”. “eu” means “well or sounding well”; “pheme” means “speech”. Its definition in Oxford English Dictionary is “(example of the) use of pleasant， mild， or indirect words or phrases in place of more accurate or direct ones.”[1]

The appearance of euphemism is based on two reasons: one aims to take the place of “taboo”. When giving up a taboo word， people will find another new one to take the place of it， which creates a euphemism. The other aims to avoid offensiveness during the communication. It is a figure of rhetoric by which an unpleasant or offensive thing is described or referred to by a milder term.

In English language， euphemism is widely used in the daily communications. In order to achieve the aim of “taboo”， it is used to avoid the unpleasant thing; in order to achieve the aim of “politeness”， it is used to avoid the inelegant things[2]， which are the two social psychological basis of the emergence of euphemism. Euphemism is one of the important parts of figure of speech. It is not only a linguistic phenomenon， but also a kind of social phenomenon and cultural phenomenon. Euphemism in use differs from person to person， from profession to profession， even from class to class[3] ， That’s why sometimes the meaning of some euphemisms will puzzle you if you do not know the background of English culture. To grasp the English euphemism can not only help us open our eyes， but strengthen our ability of reading comprehension. This paper aims to discuss the application of euphemism in English and to make acknowledge of its social influence， which could help us use euphemism in a correct way.

2. Ways to express euphemism

2.1. Figure of speech

2.1.1. Metonymy.

That is to use the general words to take the place of the concrete words. “Passed away” which refers to “dead” belongs to metonymy. It can be pided into the following forms: 1) to use the container to take the place of the things in the container. For example: “to be fond of the bottle” is a euphemism for “l(fā)iking to drink”. 2) To use the entirety instead of the part. For example: “abdomen” is used to refer to “belly”; “l(fā)imb” refers to “l(fā)eg”. For some special occasions， the part can be used instead of the entirety. In Australian English “an old hand” is a euphemism for “an old prisoner”. 3) To use the tools to take the place of the objects. For example， “pick” is a tool of prying the lock. It can refer to “thief”. 4) To use raw materials to take the place of finished products. For instance， “poppy” is a kind of flower， but it also refers to “opium”. 5) To use characteristics to take the place of objects. For example， “hellow” is a greeting word， and it is also a euphemism for “prostitute” because prostitutes often use this word to solicit the whoremasters; “blood and iron” is a euphemism for “violence”. 6) To use proper words to replace the objects. For example， “napoleon” is a French golden coin on which there is Napoleon’s head portrait. “Borstal” is a name of countryside in Kent in Britain. It can also refer to “juvenile delinquency”.

Sometimes， some euphemisms are frequently used instead of the original words; people gradually forget their euphemistic identities. They are not used in terms of euphemisms but have their own independent meanings. For instance， take above-mentioned “poppy”， now if you look up this word in the dictionary， you can find the meaning of “opium”， it has lost its euphemistic function. And， if you do not know the background， you can not know the meaning of “Napoleon” and “Borstal”. Therefore， we can see the importance of knowing the background of English culture. It can help you a lot to recognize and understand the real meaning of euphemism and make good use of it.

2.1.2. Metaphor

To use metaphor can easily avoid the offensive things. For example， wherefore it is better to be a guest of the law， which， though conducted by rules， does not meddle unduly with a gentleman’s private affairs. (O. Henry， The Cop and the Anthem) “to be a guest of the law” is a euphemism for “to be in prison”[4]， Many euphemisms for “death” were created by way of metaphor， such as going to his long home， to be home and free， to go to sleep， to sleep the long (or eternal， never-ending) sleep， to rest in peace， to be at rest， to go to Heaven (or Paradise)， to join one’s ancestors， to be gathered to one’s fathers， to join the immortals. More examples are: agedsunset years， to be poorto be pinched， to have improper sexual intercourse with girls(especially maiden) to deflower; to degenerateto go astray; breastmilk bottles; catameniathe red flag; to be pregnantto be on the nest; the money of briberygrease; to bribeto grease somebody’s palm; handcuffsbracelets.

2.1.3 Personification

People’s names are often used to replace taboo words. For example， “Big Harry” refers to “heroin” because “Harry” and “heroin” have the same initials. “Lavatory” also has many euphemistical expressions. In 19th century， it was called “ my aunt Jones”， “Mrs. Jones”， “Sir John”， “Sir Harry”， “the Henry”， while in 20th century， it was called “jakes”， “john” etc. But the latter color of personification becomes weak. The first letter can be written in small letter. People just use it as a common noun. In fact， they have lost the euphemistic function. There are many humorous ways to express catamenia in terms of personification: 1) My friend has come. 2) I have a visitor. 3) My cousins/country cousins have come. 4) My auntie/grandmother has come to stay. 5) Little sister is here. 6) I’ve got painters in. 7) the cardinal has come.

2.1.4. Analogy

In the euphemisms for occupation people often use analogy， which makes the humble name more elegant[5] ， For example， “chef” is a euphemism for “cook”. It is borrowed from French word “chef de cuisine”. “Beautician” refers to “hairdresser”; “garbologist” refers to “garbage collector”; “mortician” refers to “undertaker”. There also appeared some beautiful names for barbershop: hair salon， beauty parlour， and stylist parlour.

2.1.5. Ellipsis

That is to omit the offensive words while speaking， such as to be expecting (a baby)， to have (sexual) relations with somebody， to take precautions (against pregnancy)， to depart (from this world). Of course， such phrases should be put into a certain context， which can express the meaning of euphemisms.

2.1.6. Periphrasis

It is an expression of beating around the bush. Though it is a muddled acting， its aim is to avoid offending others， and to be more polite[6]. If someone asked a woman whether she was knitting a tiny garment， he meant that he wondered whether she was pregnant. Such way of speaking is humorous， sweet and agreeable， such as to dieto close one’s eyes， to expire， to breathe one’s last; to defecate and to urinateto wash one’s hands， to ease or relieve oneself， to do one’s business; to courtto go walking; to be pregnantto eat for two; lavatorywashroom， cloakroom; fartwind from behind; women’s underclothesunmentionables; trousersnether garments; ask you to go awaycall your carriage for you; to dismissto give somebody the sack; to be in prisonto live at the government's expense. Teachers often use this expression to avoid the students’ and their parents’ awkwardness. For example， laziness is called “needing ample supervision in order to work well”; “cheat” is described as “needing help in learning to adhere to rules and standards of fair play”; “l(fā)ies” is called “showing difficulty in distinguishing between imaginary and factual material”; “steal” is called “needing help in learning to respect the property rights of others”; “be a bully” refers to “having qualities of leadership but needs help in learning to use them democratically”; “dirty” is called “ be lack of proper health habits”.[7]

2.2. Semantic method

2.2.1. Synonym

For example， “tight” is used instead of “stingy”; “thrift” is used instead of “economical”，“defecate” replaces “shift” and “urine” replaces “piss” . And “mad” is replaced by “crazy”， “insane”， and “l(fā)unatic”. Such euphemism aims to use the appreciative term to take the place of the derogatory term.

2.2.2. Negation

Such euphemism uses the contrary term to express the same meaning， and it could be more useful than synonym in replacing the taboo and make people more understandable and comfortable. We could call stupid people unwise people. “A fat chance” means “a slim chance”and “find words” stands for “bad words”

2.2.3. Vague words and expressions

That is to make the harsher or offensive words more general. For example， if somebody has some mental problems， we can express it like this: His roof leaks a little; he has a screw loose/missing; he is not at home. There are other examples which use vague expressions， such as diseasetrouble， problem; to come across an unfortunate thingto have an accident; V. D. (venereal disease) secret disease; to live together illegallyto cohabit; intrauterine devicering; to rape somebodyto do violence to somebody; prostitutea woman of the streets， a woman of a certain class， a painted woman， a lady of the night girl; to entertain whorehouse visitorsto see company; whorehousehouse; a squintan obliquity of vision; a man of bad tastea man of doubtful taste; strikeindustrial action; the poorthe underprivileged， the disadvantaged; in debtin difficulties; buttocksbehind， bottom， backsides; homosexualqueer; sexual intercourseintimacy; to be killedto be put to sleep.

2.2.4. Loan words

Because from the period of Renaissance， Latin， Greek， and French are considered as cultured words[8]. People consider that those languages are more elegant， tactful and ambiguous. In the early 19th century， no matter in Britain or America， people used French word “enceinte” instead of English word “pregnant”. It is popular till now because the former is more elegant， tactful and ambiguous. English borrows words not only from French but also from other languages in many kinds of ways to create its own euphemism. For example， “l(fā)avatory” was borrowed from Latin word “l(fā)avatorium”， but it lost its meaning of euphemism because of long- time using. Therefore， people borrowed another euphemism from French “toilette” which was respelled into “toilet”， and it became the most popular euphemism referring to lavatory. French words “chemise” and “l(fā)ingerie” are euphemisms for “underwear” and “blouse” respectively. “sushi” was borrowed from Japanese “すし”. Its original meaning is a kind of Japanese food. People put it into a phrase “a little tongue sushi”， which means “tongue kissing”. The above words mostly belong to the common vocabulary. In addition， euphemisms also borrow some science and technological words and academic words that are cold， clinic and antiseptic. Such words are mainly from Latin and Greek. For example， Latin word “coitus” is a euphemism for “fuck”; Native words “shit” and “piss” are all dirty words， while Latin word “defecation” and Greek word “urination” are all accepted easily.

2.2.5. Understatement

That is to state some serious things in a temperate way in order to avoid being awkward and strident[9] . For example， “She was neither quite pretty nor quiet plain.” “Plain” is used instead of “ugly”; “My cousin Jimmy was a bit soft in the head.” “Soft in the head” means “mad”; “The boy used to take things without permission and has just been out of the rehabilitation home in the country.” (steal， detention home); the period of economic depressiona period of economic adjustment; money for briberykickback， commission; poor familieslow income families; falling behindless advanced; retarded childrenless able children; an ugly girla plain or homely girl; disabledphysically handicapped; to be illto look off color， to feel unwell or uncomfortable; treatmenthealth care; old ageadvanced in age.

2.3. The variety of pronunciation and spelling form

English is an alphabetic writing. The variation of phonetic form can avoid the original conception in a certain degree and achieve the purpose of euphemism. 1) Compounding: gezunda (goes under). 2) Acronym: DA (drug addict)， KG (know gambler)， B.O.T (balance of time)， J.D (juvenile delinquent)， P and Q (peace and quiet). 3) Back-formation: burgle (burgler) 4) chipping: vamp (vampire)， homo (homosexual)， gents (Gentlemen’s Room)， and ladies (Ladies Room)[10].

There is an interesting example: “l(fā)aboratory”， the original stress was on the first syllable. But it sounded similarly to “l(fā)avatory”. In order to avoid the unpleasant connection， the stress was moved to the second syllable. Such phenomenon is called Assonance. That is to make use of or to create words， which have the same or similar pronunciations with euphemistic words in order to achieve the purpose of euphemism. Therefore， in English there is a way of personification to express “catamenia”: The captain is at home. It is because “captain” is assonant with the medical science term “catamenia”. In oral English， “pee” is used to refer to “piss”， which has the same reason.

2.4. Grammar

That is to use past tense， negative sentence to express euphemism. For example， I can see by your face that you don’t think that was wise. The negative form means “thinking that was foolish”; “How do we feel today?” Using “we” instead of “you” shows the moderation and geniality. “I wanted to…” “I wondered…” often take the place of “I want to…” “I wonder…” Such expression is often used in oral English.[11]

3 The Social Influences of Euphemism

Euphemism is widely used in America and Britain. It has a long history. New euphemisms emerge in an endless stream. According to its applied functions， I’d like to pide it into three parts: Avoidance， Courtesy and Disguise. Through studying the three functions， we can understand the western society’s view on value and morality.

3.1. Avoidance

The earliest subject of Euphemism is religious[12]. The conception of taboo is deep-rooted in people’s mind， and it is not easy to remove. The appearance of taboo could date back to ancient Greek and ancient Roman. In human’s eyes God owns a super power that could control everything. Because fearing of the secret power， People use euphemism to avoid mentioning the guilty， unpleasant， rude or offensive words， which plays a role of purifying languages. For example， European Americans avoid speaking “Friday” and “13”. When the two things appear in the same day， it is an ill omen. And there is an example: there appeared an episode in 1972 when President Nicoson visited China. Chinese Premier Zhou went to Shanghai to receive American visitors. He found that Mr. and Mrs. Nicoson were arranged to live in Room15， Kissinger in Room14， but some state councilors in Room13? The Western people often take Number 13 as a taboo. After entering their apartments， Premier Zhou was aware that these Western visitors seemed unhappy. So he explained:” it is a pity that we have made a serious mistake. We ignored the special Western culture.” He continued，” There was an old Chinese fable that when a man was afraid of ghost， the more he thought， the more he felt terrified. At the time he felt no fear， he began to look for the ghost， but the ghost disappeared…Number 13 in Western culture looked like the Chinese ghost.” Hearing his story， the American visitors laughed heartily. At last they cooled down. From this example， we can realize the necessity of the cultural infiltration in language communication. So we must pay attention to the social influence of euphemism. This avoidance function is the first communication function of euphemisms[13]. Such function is often used in the following situations:

轉貼于 3.1.1. The euphemisms for God and devil

The Ten Commandments of Bible has prescribed， “Thou shalt not take the name of the Lord thy God in vain; for the Lord will not hold him guiltless that taketh his name in vain.” That’s why there are so many euphemisms. In oral English， using “God” causally would be considered blasphmous. If someone say “God damni it” he is treason and heresy， and would be punished [14] . Some of them adopt the semantic method， such as the Creator， the Maker， the Supreme (Being)， Holy One， the Almighty， the Eternal， Our Father， the Saviour， King of Kings， Lord of lords， the Light of the World， Sovereign of the Universe. Some of them adopt the phonetic method， such as Gad， Gosh， Golly， Godfrey etc. There are many euphemisms for “the devil”， such as old enemy， old Ned， Old Nick， Old One， Ole’un (Old Man)， Old Scratch， Old Serpent， the Old Boy etc. For example， “He was frightened as if Old Harry were before him.” In English they often use “heck” instead of “hell”. “hell” has other expressions: “the other place， a very uncomfortable place， the other way etc.” For example， “We were all going direct to Heaven; we were all going direct the other way.” [15]

3.1.2 The euphemisms for death

Euphemism is often caused in speaking of things that are painful and distressing to think about. Death is one of expressions. The euphemisms for death are a widely used item， especially when it concerns one’s own families and friends. It has a lot of expressions[16]. For example， if anything should happen to me (= when I die); to pass away/ on; to depart; to go to sleep; to be no longer with us; to be interred. “Death” also has some humorous expressions: “to pop off; to push up daisies; to cash in one’s chips; to kick the bucket ”. “Death” also has an intimate relationship with religion. There are many euphemisms from Bible， for example， to return to dust/ earth; to pay the debt of nature; to be called to God/ to answer the final summons; to go to heaven; to be at peace， to be asleep in the Arms of God; to yield up the ghost; to launch into eternity; to have one’s name inscribed in the Book of life etc. Some words， which concern “death”， also have euphemistic expressions. For example， “coffin” is called “casket”; “dead body” is called “earthly remains”; “funeral” is called “memorial service”; “graveyard” is called “memory garden”.

3.1.3. The euphemisms for illness， natural and man-made calamities

Most westerners avoid talking about some serious diseases. For instance， “terminally ill” is a euphemism for “cancer”; American and British newspapers often name “syphilis” as “social disease”; “l(fā)eprosy” is called “Hansen’s disease”; “constipation” is called “irregularity”. “tumour” is called “a growth”; “commit suicide” is called “self-deliverance or self-violence”. People often use initialing to avoid talk about some diseases directly， such as AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome); Big C (Cancer); VD (Venereal Disease) etc. “to die because of a crash” is called “old Newton took him”; “hara-kiri” is called “happy dispatch”; “an unnatural death” is called “to be blown across the creek”

3.1.4. The euphemisms for sex

Nearly all languages consider “sex” a taboo word. In the west， when children asked their parents where they came from， their parents often answered the baby was a visit from the stork. People can say “pregnant” instead of “expecting” or “in the family way”; “fart” is also written into the dictionary. You can say it directly instead of saying， “wind from behind” It is just because of the movement of “sex liberty” and “sex liberation”. People can have a freer talk about “sex” than Victorian age. On the contrary， some other new euphemisms for sex appeared one after another. “Sexual knowledge” is called “facts of life”; “pornographic movies” is called “adult films”; “cohabitation” has become very common in western society. It is also called a kind of marriage: “trial marriage” or “unmarried wife”. Nevertheless， with the sharp increase of the rate of porce， there appeared many euphemisms for porce: “to break up”， “to split up， and “matchruptcy” (a blending of “match” and “bankruptcy”). And the homosexuality would be called “Greek arts”， “queer”， “gay”. There is another interesting phrase “to go to Reno”. “Reno”， a small city in the west of Nevada， is famous for its easy and fast procedures of porce. So “to go to Reno” also becomes a euphemism for porce.

3.1.5. The euphemisms for birth

Contrary to the Chinese traditional opinion， in western countries， “being pregnant” and “having a baby” are not considered “a blessed event”. Australian English even call it “a blasted event”. In America， “to wear the apron high”， “to wear/have the belly high” are euphemisms for “to be pregnant”， while in Britain， “to wear the bustle wrong” is a euphemism for “to be pregnant”. In 19th century， a slim waist is the ideal figure for British women. Therefore， “to be pregnant” is also called “to be awkward”， “in a bad way/shape”; “to make a woman pregnant” is called “to spoil/ruin a woman’s shape”. Some one even called “to be pregnant” “to be caught” or “to be fallen”. Some vague expressions also show a kind of restless mood， such as: that way， in a certain/particular/delicate condition etc. The use of humor is another feature of euphemism for “being pregnant”. American people are likely to say “to have a watermelon on the vine”， or “to swallow a watermelon seed”. British people are likely to say “to have a bun in the oven” or “to have an Irish toothache” (to make fun of Irish people who are pregnant as commonly as having a toothache).

3.2. Courtesy

Another reason to use euphemism is that it avoids the harsh and direct word in a polite way， and makes the sentence sound more pleasant. To grasp the polite function of euphemism can help you build a good relationship with others. The polite functions are especially reflected in the occupations， or trades. It relate with Politeness Principle of Leech[17]. It is obvious that advertisement is aimed at helping businessmen propaganda their goods， for the sake of soliciting customs. As a pleasant way， using euphemisms in advertisements has become more and more widespread. Now， “secondhand store” has been replaced by “resale store”， “super”， “giant”， “special”， such words， have become more popular. Moreover， we can often see the same phenomenon about the expressions for classes of cabins. To defend passengers ’honor， “First Class” is changed to “Deluxe Class”， “Second Class” is to “First Class”， “Third Class” to “Business Class”， and “Economic Class” to “Tourist Class”. This function undoubtly plays an active role of improving the progress of society:

3.2.1. The euphemism for the office and trade

For example， “mental hospital or mental health center” is a euphemism for “madhouse”; “mortuary or funeral” is a euphemism of dead house. Some small companies or small enterprises like to use the word “industry”， such as hotel industry， tourist industry， garage industry， women’s beauty industry etc.

3.2.2. The euphemism for occupation

In order to promote the social status of the occupation， almost every humble occupation has a sweet-sounding name. There are mainly two forms:

1). Compound. That is to choose some sweet-sounding occupational names to make up compound or compound phrases. For example， today we can find many occupations in America and Britain named with “engineer”: sanitary (or sanitation) engineer; building (custodian， dwelling) engineer; automobile engineer; dry cleaning engineer， pipe engineer; heating engineer; packing engineer; sales engineer; housewifedomestic engineer; the person who is in charge of killing mice and cockroachesexterminating(extermination) engineer. There are some other common titles: automotive repairmanautomotive internist; garden workerlandscape architect; prison guardcorrectional officer; pest-killerpest control operator; butchermeat technologist. Some humble occupations have many euphemistic names at the same time. For example， people often call “hair stylist” “tonsorial artist”， while people call “female hairdresser” “woman surgeon”; “undertaker” also has many expressions: bereavement counselor， grief therapist， funeral director， funeral service practitioner. Besides “engineer” housewife also can be called “household executive”， “homemaker”， even “domestic manager”; “Prostitute” also has many euphemisms， such as pavement princess， working girl， streetwalker， call girl， business girl etc.

2). Derivation. That is to choose some Latin and Greek prefixes whose meanings refer to “a person”， such as “-(o) logist”. “mixologist” is a euphemism for “a bar’s waiter”; dustman for garbologist; female hairdresser for cosmetologist; undertaker for mortician; cobbler for shoetrician; locksmith for locktician. Some special occupational names have adopted two prefixes. For example cosmetologist and cosmetician both refer to “female hairdresser”. Moreover， Latin prefix “-arian” is originally used in religion， but now it is also used in the occupation， such as: bartarian， sanitarian. Another Latin prefix “-ian” is also used popularly， such as custodian (entrance guard or dustman). Some people even want to change the native prefix “-er” to the Latin prefix “-or” because they think the foreign prefix is more elegant and sweet-sounding， such as weldor， wild animal trainor.

3.2.3. The euphemisms for the aged and weight

The age， especially a woman’s age is regarded as a sensitive privacy. And most of the western people are afraid of getting old， so they call “old people” “senior citizens”. ”old age” and “senility” can easily cause the fear of the old people. Some euphemistic expressions take the place of them， such as “getting on (in years)， past one’s prime， feeling one’s age， second childhood， a distinguished gentleman， a grande dame， third age”. The old people become “an elder statesman” or “old age pensioner” or even use initialing “OAP”. They are not “old” but “l(fā)ong-lived”. Old people’s home， of course， is not an ideal place for old men to live in. There are many euphemistic expressions: a home for adults， a nursing home， a rest home， a private hospital， a convalescent hospital. The old people who live there are called euphemistically “a resident”.

In western country， it is very impolite if you talk about someone’s figure and weight without reservation. If someone is “fat”， “overweight” is often used to replace it. “weight-watchers” is also a euphemism for “fat people”. To female， “a fat girl” is called “a fuller figure or plump”; to male， “fat” is called “stout”; to child， it is called “chubby”. On the contrary， if someone is too thin， euphemism is also used. To male， it is called “l(fā)ean”， and to female， it is called “slim， slender， willowy or svelte”.

3.2.4. The euphemisms for poverty and unemployment

The topic of poverty and unemployment might cause some embarrassment， so people often use euphemism when their talks concern such things. For example， “dismissal” is often called “l(fā)ay off， ease out， get the walking ticket/pink slip”; “bankruptcy” is called “out of the game”; “penniless” is called “out of pocket， in reduced circumstances， badly off， needy etc.”; “the poor people” is called “the have-nots， the underprivileged， the disadvantaged”; even their houses also have a sweet-sounding name-“substandard housing”. The euphemism for unemployment has many expressions. Most of them are humorous， such as “between jobs”， “between shows”， “to be developing a new project”， “to receive a Mexican raise/ an Irish promotion” (to raise a promotion without raising the salary)， “to be self-employed”. In America “unemployed men” are called “claimants”， while， in Britain， they are called “to be on public assistance”. Of course， some euphemisms are pessimistic: The British unemployed men can take 50 percent off the ticket of a film and a drama， so they also can be called “the less fortunate”.

3.2.5. The euphemisms for excretion

All words concerning “excretion” except tears are considered taboo words. The euphemisms for “l(fā)avatory” have many ways of expressions， such as water closet， cloakroom， comfort station， toilet (which is popular in Britain)， restroom (which is generally used in America). In America， “convenience station” is written English， while “bathroom” is oral English. “John” is slang， while “poet’s corner” is a crack joke. In Britain， they use “Jakes” instead of “John”. They use “public comfort station” instead of “public convenience station”. Men’s lavatory is called “Gent’s， the John， the washroom”; Women’s lavatory is called “Ladies’， the powder room， powder one’s nose (Br.); powder one’s puff (Am.); Mrs. Jones”. There are also many ways to express “urination” and “defecation”， such as， to go to the bathroom/ restroom/ powder room， to do one’s business， to answer nature’s call. .

There are other expressions. For instance， I have to retire for a moment. / I would like to be excused. Interrogative sentences can also be used: Where is the restroom? Where can I wash my hands? Ladies can say， “I’d like to add some makeup.” in order to avoid the awkwardness.

3.3. Disguise

Opposite to the positive influences of euphemism， there are some different sayings about it. Some people condemn euphemisms as demoralizing because of its hypocrisy while others like Hilaire Belloc consider them a ‘psychological necessity”[18]. One of the most important reasons is that euphemism is used to conceal some scandalous behaviors and crimes. Therefore， euphemism can also bring about the negative influences， which are embodied in the following two aspects according to its concealing function:

3.3.1. The euphemisms for the requirements of politics and war.

Because of the requirements of politics and war， the British and American politicians used some euphemisms to conceal the internal truth， and cheat the public. For example， the “Water Gate” is called “scenario” [19]. Some American writers criticized that these euphemisms created from the “Water Gate” were demoralizing and hypocritical. “Time” even said directly， “These euphemisms all tell it like it isn’t.” [20] The person who steals the information is called “plumber”; The person who is against government is often called “dissidents”; American and British people name “riot” as “disturbance” or “disorder”; “strike” is called “walk-out， down tools， industrial action or industrial dispute”; “economic crises” is called “recession” or “depression”. In the aspect of military affair， “the number of the dead” is called “body count”; “aggression” is called “pre-emptive action” or “involvement”; “rout” is called “phased withdrawal”、“strategic withdrawal”、“l(fā)ight and scattered action” or “break off contact with enemy”. The euphemisms for “to kill” are often called “to take care of， to dispose of， to remove， to rub out， to puff out， to put away， to touch off etc.” “U.S. overseas military employment” is called “American presence”; “civilian casualties” is called “collateral damage”; “bombing and blasting” is called “softening up the resistance”. People seldom mention “nuclear weapons”， but “an anti-personnel weapon”. “Non-nuclear weapon” is called “a conventional weapon”. American media called their invasion to Haiti by their marines “an incident”， called the investigation of American airplanes in Russian territorial air space “an over flight”. We can see the concealing function of euphemisms becomes the needs of the struggle， the tool of cheating people.

3.3.2. The euphemisms for crime

Crime is also a very sensitive topic. The judge can say， “I hereby sentence you to five years in prison.” While the families and friends of the criminal are likely to use the euphemistic expression， such as “to send to the big house， to send up the river， to be living at the government’s expense.” “juvenile delinquents” is a euphemism for “young criminals”; “prison” is called “correctional center”; “burglary” is called “surreptitious entry”; “rape” is called “criminal assault”; “the officer’s act of stealing or embezzling” is called “They misuse public funds.” “Death penalty” is called “capital punishment”.

3.4. The countries’ names as euphemism

In English， there is another special euphemistic expression. That is to use other countries’ names instead of some harsher or more offensive words. The appearance of these euphemisms is mostly because of the historic and cultural reasons. For instance， because French had ruled Britain， British people like to make fun of the French. They called “syphilis” “the French disease”. “French letter” is a euphemism for “condom”; “abortive pill” is called “French lunar pill”; “pornographic novels/prints” is called “French novels (prints)”. It seems that the French does all the bad things. In 17th century， the war between Britain and Dutch also led to a lot of anti-Dutch words， including euphemisms. “Prostitute” is called “Dutch widow”; “commit suicide” is called “Dutch act/cure”; “Dutch courage” is an “artificial courage”; “Dutch cheer” is a euphemism for “l(fā)iquor”. It was said that the Dutch often drank some liquor to build up their courage. Besides French and Dutch， Britain also makes fun of other countries. “Condom” has other euphemistic expressions in terms of country’s name， such as Spanish letter， American letter， and Italian letter. “Abortive pill” is also called “Portuguese female pill”; “Russian roulette” is a euphemism for “to intend to commit suicide”; “Mexican raise. Irish promotion” means “to be dismissed”; “Egyptian physical training” means “to sleep at daytime”; “Chinese” is also included in this usage， and it refers to a kind of “heroin”. “Chinese white” is a euphemism for “spirited heroin”; “Chinese red” also refers to “heroin”. In a word， the British and the American relate a lot of offensive things with other countries’ names. That is why “exotic” has the meaning of “erotic”. “Exotic club” became the “striptease night club”; “exotic dancer” became the “go-go dancer”. Besides English， other western countries also have such euphemistic phenomena. In fact， it is Linguistic Chauvinism.

4. Conclusion

Euphemism appears with false appearance， and exerts a subtle influence on exposing the truth. That is to use the neutral or pleasant words to express some awkward or offensive contents. As to the English learners， we should not only pay attention to its application on appropriate occasions， but to its influences. Its active functions can coordinate the interpersonal relationships， release the contradictions and avoid the conflicts. The negative functions are to confound right and wrong， beautify the shameful behaviors and conceal the essence. Language itself has not the class character， but different people， political parties and countries can consider it a tool to serve for them. That is why someone named euphemisms as “comfortable words” or “cosmetic words”. In daily life， we should pay attention to the influences that the active and negative functions of euphemisms bring us， and keep the negative functions from corrupting our thoughts.

Bibliography

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[3]馮翠華. 英語修辭大全[M]. 北京:外語教學與研究出版社， 1995年12月. P208

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[8]鄭曉暉. 從‘委婉語’的構造看其語義特征[J]. 荊州職業(yè)技術學報， 2004年9月. 第5期. P52

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[17]劉馳. 英語委婉語的形成與交際功能[J]. 青海師范大學學報（哲學社會科學版）， 2003年第2期. P98

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篇6

［關鍵詞］微課程;大學英語;設計與應用

新技術的快速發(fā)展在教育領域引發(fā)了一系列的變革，大學英語課堂正需要打破傳統(tǒng)格局，建立一種新型的高效、便捷、輕松的教育和學習模式，而微課程的出現(xiàn)和發(fā)展為提高大學英語課堂效率提供了契機。本文通過對微課程的特點和優(yōu)勢進行分析，探索了微課程在大學英語教學中的設計和應用的新途徑。

一、大學英語的教學現(xiàn)狀

通常情況下，學生在高中畢業(yè)時已進行了十多年的英語學習，在詞匯和語法上有了相當程度上的積累，對于基本的英語語法和語言知識有了一定的掌握，已經(jīng)具備了基本的聽說讀寫的能力，因此，當學生進入大學學習時，如果大學英語教學模式依然延續(xù)高中圍繞英語詞匯和語法進行的英語教學模式來展開，將很難滿足當今知識技術日益革新的社會對于大學畢業(yè)生的基本要求。同時，在大學英語教學實踐中發(fā)現(xiàn)，不同專業(yè)的大學生英語學習的特點不同，大學英語課程需要考慮到不同專業(yè)學生的需求，這對授課教師的專業(yè)特長和學術能力，以及教材的選擇方面提出了很大的挑戰(zhàn)。而此時，微課的出現(xiàn)以其本身的特點和優(yōu)勢，為創(chuàng)建大學英語教學的新模式提供了條件。

二、微課程教學模式的理論探索

1．微課程的定義

關于微課程的涵義，國內外專家沒有一個確切統(tǒng)一的說法。美國戴維•彭羅斯將微課程稱為“知識脈沖(KnowledgeBurst)”，它與相關討論與課后練習聯(lián)系起來，會取得與傳統(tǒng)長時間授課模式相同的教學效果。總結國內外觀點，微課程的定義是指按照新課程標準及教學實踐要求，以教學視頻為主要載體，錄制時長大約5～10分鐘的有關教學重難點、考點、疑點等的簡短視頻，反映教師在課堂教學過程中針對某個知識點或教學環(huán)節(jié)而開展教與學活動的各種教學資源有機組合。這種微視頻的反復使用，不但可以滿足大學生們個性化的需求，而且對教師們相互交流教學資源也大有裨益。

2．微課程的特點

作為一種新興的現(xiàn)代教學模式，微課程與日益更新的電子信息技術結合，實現(xiàn)了教育技術和媒體資源的共享，具有短小精悍，重點突出，針對性強，制作簡單，使用靈活方便等特點。首先，微課程的時間較短，時長約為5～10分鐘，下載保存方便，可以使學生利用零散的時間進行學習，方便學生在注意力相對集中的時間內高效率地學習。其次，微課程教學主題明確，內容精細。微課通常是針對某個特定的知識點而展開的，內容精煉，針對性強，方便學生理解和掌握。第三，微課程的教學模式有助于學生自主學習能力的提高，增加師生間的互動交流。學生可以不限時間、地點反復地使用微課視頻進行學習，教師能夠準確掌握學生學習的不足，針對性地進行輔導，極大地提高了學生學習的成就感和自信心。此外，微課程還有制作簡單、生動有趣，以及方便教師交流等特點，這就使得微課教學迅速地風靡全世界。

3．微課程在大學英語教學應用中體現(xiàn)出的優(yōu)勢

傳統(tǒng)的英語教學模式主要是以教師講授為主，知識多且繁雜，學生在學習中處于被動狀態(tài)，注意力很難集中。微課程這種全新的教學模式不僅可以讓師生共同參與，體驗微課教學模式的優(yōu)勢，而且可以促使教師在教學過程中不斷完善教學方式。微課程在大學英語教學中較之于傳統(tǒng)教學模式有很大的優(yōu)勢，具體體現(xiàn)在以下幾個方面:第一，教學內容更加精煉，更有針對性。微課視頻的內容都是教師根據(jù)整體的教學大綱進行整理、歸納剔除了冗長多余的內容后濃縮的精華，具備很強的代表性，能夠在很大程度上提高學生學習英語的效率。第二，教師與學生的互動性大大提升。借助微課平臺，學生可以隨時隨地就視頻中的難點和問題與教師進行線上的交流與互動，方便教師及時解決學生的問題，糾正口語上的錯誤，這在一定程度上提高了學生的英語水平。第三，解除了傳統(tǒng)英語課堂對學生學習的時空限制。傳統(tǒng)教學主要局限于課堂，微課教學模式使學習的地點不再受到限制，教師在完成微課視頻的制作后將視頻上傳到網(wǎng)絡，而學生則可以隨時隨地用電腦或手機學習到英語知識。

三、微課程教學模式在大學英語教學中的設計與應用

1．微課教學視頻的收集與制作

在制作微視頻前，教師首先要先明確教學內容和目標，要結合學生實際的學習能力和水平圍繞教學主題來設計微課教學設計方案。在確定主題后，要收集與主題相關的素材來完善教學方案，收集的素材可以包括圖片、視頻和影視資料等，然后將資源進行整合歸納，盡可能更多地突出教學內容的重點、難點，剔除冗長多余的內容，制作出少于20分鐘的視頻。教師在制作ppt時要注意設計簡單明了，編排有序，片頭要呈現(xiàn)出微課主要信息，前幾十秒的時間做情景導入，最好伴有幾個啟發(fā)式的問題以激發(fā)學生興趣，引起學生的思考。教師在制作視頻時，需將短小精悍的微課程視頻做到內容精煉，生動有趣，這樣才能達到最佳教學效果。微課視頻的時長雖然短少，但不能因此而降低視頻的教學質量。

2．課前視頻的

教師在編輯視頻時盡量使用比較常見的視頻格式，避免學生視頻無法接收的情況，也便于學生下載觀看。同時，還要添加一些與課程相關的重點批注和講解，以及視頻相關的課后作業(yè)等，布置的課后作業(yè)要圍繞著微課視頻的教學重點、難點，這樣有助于學生熟練地運用微課程所學的內容，同時又要帶有啟發(fā)性，能夠培養(yǎng)學生的興趣。在微課程開始之前，要指導學生按照微課程的教學任務進行課前預習，只有這樣才能在課堂上達到良好的學習效果。

3．課堂的教學活動

課堂教學中，學生不再是被動地接受教學知識，而是主動地參與到課程的學習中，有目的、有針對性地學習，微課程的優(yōu)勢就在于能夠利用圖片、影像、聲音、文本等多種方式來刺激學生視覺、聽覺、觸覺、感覺等多種感官，將原本枯燥無趣的書本知識轉變?yōu)橐粋€生動、形象的學習場景，從而達到激發(fā)學生潛能，迅速掌握課文內容的效果。教師可利用微課教學資源，進行“看圖說話”或“看圖配音”等情景活動，使課堂變得生動有趣，提升學生在情景中靈活運用語言的能力，增加學生對英語學習的興趣，還要針對學生的特點，進行個性化教學。教師可以在視頻之外補充板書、flash、word文檔等其他形式的教學方式，也可以留給學生適當?shù)臅r間進行小組討論，教師從旁輔助指導。教師可以針對微課平臺上學生的疑難問題有針對性地講解，找到學生學習中的薄弱之處，提升課堂教學的效率。

4．課后總結與互動交流

在微課教學結束后，學生可以就課堂上沒有弄懂的問題在微課程平臺上與教師進行在線咨詢，不但可以更扎實地掌握課堂所學內容，同時也提升了學生的反思和總結能力。而教師則要注意觀察學生微課任務的完成情況，以觀測學生在大學英語微課教學中的實際效果，當然教師可以建立一個學生微課程視頻學習情況一覽表，并不定期地對學生學習視頻的情況進行摸底考察，這樣可以有效地督促某些自律性差的學生，并將學習情況進行分析總結，建立有針對性的微課教學學習情況數(shù)據(jù)庫，及時有針對性地對這部分學生輔助指導，督促學生進行學習方法的合理調整。教師也可通過調查問卷等方式了解學生的需求，邀請學生也參與到微課程的設計當中，在線對微課程的設計發(fā)表觀點和意見，教師可以根據(jù)學生課堂表現(xiàn)、聽課效果反饋和學生意見進行總結反思，修改微課程的設計方案，使微課程的學習更加貼近學生的需要，從而達到事半功倍的效果。

綜上所述，在大學英語課堂中使用微課教學模式是可行的，這一教學模式可以有效提高該課程的教學效率，彌補傳統(tǒng)課堂教學的不足之處。這使學生成為學習的主體，調動了學生的主觀能動性，激發(fā)了學生對大學英語教學的學習興趣，并推動個性化學習真正應用于教學實踐。微課程教學模式在大學英語教學中的設計與應用具有很強的實踐性和先進性，雖然在我國還處于初步探索階段，但是隨著對微課程教學的深入探討和研究，必將促進我國大學英語教學水平更上新臺階。

作者:馬文佳 單位:佳木斯大學

［參考文獻］

［1］李季．基于微課程教學模式下的大學英語教學策略研究［J］．海外英語，2015(12):49－53．

［2］閆易乾．微課程在大學英語教學中的應用［J］．教改探索，2015(8):68．

［3］歐陽志群．微課對大學英語教學改革的啟示［J］．高教學刊，2015(15):85－88．

［4］仇慧．基于翻轉課堂模式下的大學英語教學的研究———以中國文化課程為例［D］．東北石油大學，2014．

篇7

During the Spring and Autumn Period (770-476 B.C.), Duke Xian of the State of Jin Killed the crown prince Sheng because he had heard slanders1 about Sheng and believed them. He also sent his men to arrest Chong Er, Shen Sheng and believed them. He also sent his men to arrest Chonh Er, Shen Sheng's brother. Hearing the news, Chong Er escaped from the state of Jin, remaining a fugitive2 for more than ten years.

After innumerable hardships, Chong Er arrived at the State of Chu at last. King Cheng of the State of Chu treated him with high respect as he would have treated the ruler of a state, believing that he would have a vright fuure.

One day, King Cheng of the State of Chu gave a banquet in honoudr of Chong Er. Suddenly, amid the harmonious3 atmosphere of drinking and talking, King Cheng of the State of Chu asked Chong Er. "How will you repay me when you return to the State of Jin and become its ruler one day?" After thinking for a moment, Chong Er said, "You have plenty of beauties and attendants as well as jewelry4 and silk cloth, and the state of Chu abounds5 in rare brides and animals. What treasure can the State of Jin boast having to present to your majesty6?" King Cheng of the State of Chu said, "You are too modest. Nevertheless, you still have to show your gratitude7 to me in one way or another, I presume?" Smiling, Chong Er answered, "If I should be fortunate enouge to return to the State of Jin and become its ruler, the State of Jin would be friendly to the State of Chu. If, one day, there should be a war between the two states, I would definitely order my troops to retreat three SHE (one SHE is equivalent to thirty LI. The LI is a Chinese unit of length equivalent to 1/2 kilometre. And, therefore, three SHE is about thirty miles.) as a condition for peace. If, under that condition, you were still not reconciled, I would have to fight with you."

Four years later, as might be expected, Chong Er returned to the State of Jin and became its ruler. He was none other than Duke Wen of the State of Jin famous in ancient Chinese history. Ruled by him, the State of Jin became increasingly powerful.

In the year 533 B.C., the Chu troops and the Jin troops confronted each other in a battle. Faithful to his promise, Duke Wen of the State of Jin ordered his troops to retreat about thirty miles. After retreating, the Jin troops were stationed at Chengpu. Seeing that the Jin troops were retreating, the Chu troops thought that the enemy troops were afraid, and began chasing them. Taking advantage of the Chu troops' arrogance8 and their talking the Jin troops lightly, the Jin troops concentrated their forces and inflicted9 a crushing defeat on the Chu troops, thus winning the victory of the battle of Chengpu.

This set phrase, "retreating about thirty miles as a condition for peace," is derived10 from the Chapter "The Twenty-second Year of Duke Xi" in ZuoZhuan, the famous commentary by Zuo Qiuming on The spring and Autumn Annals. The idea of this set phrase is to give way to somebody in order to avoid a conflict.

春秋時候，晉獻公聽信讒言，殺了太子申生，又派人捉拿申生的弟弟重耳。重耳聞訊，逃出了晉國，在外流忘十幾年。

經(jīng)過千幸萬苦,重耳來到楚國。楚成王認為重耳日后必有大作為，就以國群之禮相迎，待他如上賓。

一天，楚王設宴招待重耳，兩人飲灑敘話，氣氛十分融洽。忽然楚王問重耳：“你若有一天回晉國當上國君，該怎么報答我呢？”重耳略一思索說：“美女待從、珍寶絲綢，大王您有的是，珍禽羽毛，象牙獸皮，更是楚地的盛產(chǎn)，晉國哪有什么珍奇物品獻給大王呢？”楚王說：“公子過謙了。話雖然這么說，可總該對我有所表示吧？”重耳笑笑回答道：“要是托您的福。果真能回國當政的話，我愿與貴國友好。假如有一天，晉楚國之間發(fā)生戰(zhàn)爭，我一定命令軍隊先退避三舍（一舍等于三十里），如果還不能得到您的原諒，我再與您交戰(zhàn)。”

四年后，重耳真的回到晉國當了國君，就是歷史上有名的晉文公。晉國在他的治理下日益強大。

篇8

關鍵詞：高職英語；微課資源；建設；應用

一、微課在高職英語教學中的作用

1.促進英語課堂教學的改革

教育界倡導“以教師為主導、以學生為主體”的教學模式，在很大程度上并沒有得到徹底的貫徹和實施，課堂教學還是以英語教師講授為主，學生被動接收知識，學生的語言能力沒有得到更大程度的提高。微課的開發(fā)和利用有效改變了以往的教學模式，課前學生觀看相關教學視頻，課上英語教師組織各種活動進行練習和答疑，實現(xiàn)了課內外教學活動的翻轉。這種教學模式提高了學生的自主學習能力，真正實現(xiàn)了個性化教學，促進了師生之間的良性互動。

2.促進英語教師教學能力的提升

微課的制作要求英語教師不僅要認真鉆研教學內容，精心設計教學過程，還要大量查閱相關資料，與同行進行深入的談論交流，學習運用現(xiàn)代化的教學手段，才能制作出高質量的微課精品。在使用微課的過程中，英語教師結合學生的實際情況認真總結優(yōu)點，反思不足，不斷提高自身的微課制作水平及應用效果。這一過程極大地促進了英語教師的專業(yè)化成長和教學能力的不斷提升。

3.促進信息技術與英語教學的融合

時代在改變，信息新技術的不斷涌現(xiàn)為教育的發(fā)展提供了廣闊的空間和無限的可能。微課在教學中的運用，促進英語教師不斷學習新的技術，從而有效開展教學和交流活動，使學生的課外自主學習成為可能，實現(xiàn)了師生之間課內外的實時溝通。微課的運用改變了以往的課堂教學模式，促進了信息技術與教育的深度融合。

二、高職英語微課資源建設

1.高校英語微課比賽

為鼓勵英語教師積極參與微課的制作和運用，高等教育出版社已舉辦兩屆中國外語微課大賽。目前，第二屆外語微課大賽正處在復賽評審階段。中國外語微課大賽在外語界掀起了一股學習微課、制作微課的潮流，為全國外語教師之間的相互交流、相互學習提供了一個有效的平臺。比賽當中涌現(xiàn)出一些外語微課精品，值得外語教師借鑒學習并在教學中運用；但從整體上看，英語教師為比賽而制作微課的痕跡比較明顯，微課作品存在缺乏系統(tǒng)性的規(guī)劃、實用性低、低水平的重復等缺點。

2.高職英語微課資源的特點

（1）實用性。高職英語微課資源注重實用性。高職學生的英語水平參差不齊，英語教師根據(jù)學生的不同學習需求、不同英語水平制作不同內容的微課，滿足學生的個性化英語學習需求。學生在學習英語微課的過程中，能夠真正有所收獲、切實提高自身的英語水平，這樣才能真正發(fā)揮出英語微課的作用，從而有效避免微課只是停留在制作的層面上。

（2）精品化。高職英語微課資源注重精品化。首先，選題精當，英語教師選擇學生感興趣、對學生學習有意義的話題；其次，內容精細，教師通過完整合理的教學設計把一個知識點或技能點講精講透，讓學生在學完微課以后，真正掌握所學內容；再次，制作精良，英語教師通過各種軟件的綜合運用，最終呈現(xiàn)一個圖像聲音清晰、搭配合理、美觀大方的教學視頻，從而讓學生愿意學、樂于學。

（3）系統(tǒng)化。高職英語微課資源要系統(tǒng)化。高職院校鼓勵英語教師積極投身微課資源建設，充分發(fā)揮每位教師的優(yōu)勢和特長，制作不同專題、不同系列的微課，最終使得微課資源形成完整的體系。高職院?？梢耘c其他院校積極開展合作，共同開發(fā)高職英語微課資源，從而保障英語微課的質量，以便能夠推出精品。

3.建立高職英語微課資源平臺

為促進微課在高職英語教學中的廣泛運用，高職院校積極構建高職英語微課資源平臺。微課平臺要提供資源的、下載功能，提供教學的互動功能，為生生、師生提供在線學習討論區(qū)，成為一個集資源分享、課程學習和線上討論為一體的教學平臺。高職院校也可以結合自身的實際情況，充分發(fā)揮網(wǎng)絡教學平臺的各種功能，實現(xiàn)英語微課資源的共享。

三、高職英語微課資源應用

1.高職英語教師構建“網(wǎng)絡+課堂”混合式教學模式

高職英語教師要積極利用、充分發(fā)揮微課資源平臺在高職英語教學中的作用。高職英語微課旨在服務于任務教學法和翻轉課堂的新理念，創(chuàng)新教學模式，給課堂注入新活力。高職英語教師可結合具體的教學內容，給學生布置具體的任務，讓學生課前觀看微課視頻；課上，教師精心組織各種教學活動，讓學生有機會體驗、參與、交流、討論，從而實現(xiàn)課內外教學活動的翻轉。通過高職英語微課資源平臺，學生隨時與英語教師討論交流，使師生、生生的實時交流成為可能。

2.學生提高自主學習能力

高職學生不斷提高自身的信息素養(yǎng)，學會有效利用現(xiàn)代化的教學手段和豐富的英語教學資源為英語學習服務。課前，根據(jù)英語教師布置的具體任務，積極觀看微（下轉第120頁）（上接第102頁）課教學視頻、積極主動學習新知識；課堂上，積極參加各種課堂活動，讓自己充分融入英語課堂，真正變成英語課堂的主人。高職學生需要不斷提高自主學習能力，為以后的繼續(xù)學習、終身學習奠定良好的基礎。

3.學校的鼓勵支持

學校鼓勵英語教師使用英語微課資源平臺進行英語教學，邀請英語微課使用效果好的教師進行講座，分享他們成功的經(jīng)驗，使得成功的經(jīng)驗在更大范圍內得以運用。學校在學生中積極開展微課滿意度的調查，對學生認可度較高的英語微課和教師進行物質或者榮譽的獎勵，營造良好的教學氛圍，讓更多的英語教師積極投入到建設微課、使用微課的過程中來。高職院校與其他院校共同開發(fā)、共同使用英語微課資源，提高高職英語微課資源的使用率，充分發(fā)揮其在高職英語教學中的作用。

高職英語微課資源建設是一個龐大的、系統(tǒng)的工程，需要學校、廣大英語教師付出相當多的時間和精力才能不斷完善、不斷提高。在英語微課資源運用的過程中，英語教師不斷研究、探索，才能找到一條合適的道路。盡管如此，微課資源結合任務教學法和翻轉課堂在高職英語教學中的運用仍是高職英語教學前進的方向。

參考文獻：

[1]宋楚平，李少芹，張紅芳. MOOC背景下行業(yè)英語微課資源建設探討[J].職業(yè)技術教育，2015（2）：20.

[2]楊雯娟.高職英語微課建設及應用策略研究[J].科教導刊，2015（4）：106.

篇9

關鍵詞： 英語課堂 活動設計 活動設計例子

隨著英語在我國甚乎全球的日益廣泛使用，英語教育無疑已成為我國教育的重點之一，小至牙牙學語的小朋友，大至在校接受高等教育的學生、在職工作人員甚至于退休人員，都成為英語培訓及教育的對象。然而，傳統(tǒng)的學校教育方式使英語學習成為眾多學習者心理的痛。以教師為中心、說教式為主要教學方法、應試為主要目標的英語教育方式忽略了英語作為一種語言的溝通功能性，因此正受到社會一步步的淘汰。對學習英語的方式提出了更高的要求。身處英語培訓行業(yè)的我更加深刻了解到英語課堂活動多樣性、趣味性，以及以學生為中心的重要性。因此，根據(jù)多年的英語學習及英語教學經(jīng)驗，針對英語課堂上英語活動的設計做出梳理及總結。此文將從英語活動設計的原則及活動設計的方式兩個方面進行剖析，并舉具體的活動例子深化說明。

一、英語課堂上英語活動設計的原則

1.活動主體及客體的匹配

活動的主體即學生，客體就是活動的內容及形式。我們在設計活動的內容及形式時，必須首先考慮學生的年齡、知識水平、需求、認知能力等各方面因素，進行主體及客體間的匹配。沒有調研過主體的各方面因素，無論活動內容設計得如何豐富、整體思路如何完美，都不能稱之為成功的活動設計，因此此原則為基礎原則。

2.課堂上英語活動的適時性

適時性包括課堂上英語活動合適的頻率及每個活動合適的時長。課堂上的英語學習時間往往是有限的。一般來說為45分鐘—90分鐘為一個課堂學習單位，因此在設計活動的時候必須考慮到其所需時間及適合的頻率。課堂上活動頻率過密或時間過長都會影響學生學習的有效性。

3.根據(jù)活動目的進行必要的知識補充

英語課堂上活動的目的大致可以分為以下幾類：通過活動了解新的學習內容或方法、通過活動實踐并練習已學過的內容及方法、通過活動對已有的學習內容及方法進行溫習并鞏固。無論是哪種目標，在進行活動之前或之后，都需要有一些相關知識的補充及輸入，或是背景知識介紹，或是學習方法的概括和總結，或一些協(xié)助學生進行活動的補充材料。針對比較程度較低的學生，這些補充材料最好以書面的形式加以呈現(xiàn)。

二、英語課堂上英語活動的設計——例子

為了更好闡述英語課堂上英語活動的設計，我列舉兩個實例，并從目的、對象、時間、具體方式等方面向大家介紹，并對活動的效果進行總結及分析。

活動一：

語言目標：if真實條件句的學習

目的：讓學生掌握if真實條件句的句式，并加以應用

對象：初級水平學生

人數(shù)：10人或以上

時間：約15分鐘

步驟：

1.向學生介紹if真實條件句之句式：if+一般現(xiàn)在時，主句+一般將來時。

2.教師舉完整例子，如If it doesn’t rain tomorrow，I will go shopping with my mom.

3.教師舉半完整例子，并讓學生填充，如：

If my friend comes see me tomorrow，I will ·搖·搖·搖 ·搖·搖·搖·搖.

The teacher will be happy if ·搖·搖·搖·搖·搖 ·搖·搖.

4.學生舉完整例子，并邀請若干學生口頭或在黑板上寫下句子。

5.If真實條件句接龍：教師確定學生已基本掌握句式用法后，將學生分成小組，5~10人每組，進行句子接龍，前一個同學的后半個句子必須是下一個同學的上半個句子，具體如下。

學生一：If it doesn’t rain tomorrow，I will go shopping.

學生二：I will go shopping tomorrow if my best friend goes with me.

學生三：If my best friend goes with me，I won’t bring any money ...

如此類推，只要有一個同學犯錯，如時態(tài)錯誤或單詞發(fā)音不準確或所接句子不完整，就必須重新開始，但時間不重新計算。最快完成的小組勝利。

三、活動實況回顧

此活動整體來說是較為成功的，學生基本掌握了if真實條件句的句式及用法，并能夠針對自身的情況進行運用，與此同時，接龍游戲的設計大大活躍了課堂氣氛，使絕大部分的同學積極參與其中，用游戲及競賽的方式增強了語法學習的趣味性。盡管如此，本次活動還有美中不足的地方，由于舉行活動的班級人數(shù)較多，約35人，因此整個活動耗時超過了原定的15分鐘，耗時大約25分鐘。由于人數(shù)過多，進行到活動后半部分的時候，許多學生已經(jīng)難以集中精力聆聽其他學生的句子，課堂上出現(xiàn)稍微混亂的局面。

在進行此活動時，人數(shù)的控制是其中一個難點，過少學生難以進行競賽，過多的學生難以控制時間及局面，所以最好針對學生的數(shù)量對活動進行調整，并對整體耗時進行監(jiān)控。這就體現(xiàn)了活動主體及客體的匹配及課堂上英語活動的適時性原則。

活動二：

活動名稱：Mix and Match

針對課程：閱讀

目的：增加學生閱讀的參與性及自主性，培養(yǎng)學生概括及描述能力，增強邏輯思考能力；與此同時提高學生口語概括能力。

對象：中/高水平學生

人數(shù)：6~8人或以上

時間：30~45分鐘（取決于閱讀材料的難易程度及學生的參與度）

篇10

英語課堂教學活動是學生學習和掌握英語的主要途徑，其優(yōu)劣程度直接關系到學生學習效果的好壞，從而影響著英語教學目的的實現(xiàn)。因此，為了達到教學的最優(yōu)化效果，必須要求教師事先精心設計好課堂教學活動，體現(xiàn)出教學的科學性、藝術性與實用性。

1.英語課堂教學活動設計是順利完成課堂教學目的，提高課堂教學效果的需要?！胺彩骂A則立，不預則廢”教學活動設計是整個教學工作中不可或缺的重要環(huán)節(jié)。教師要依據(jù)教學大綱的要求、教材的具體內容、語言的學習規(guī)律、學生的學習水平和已達到的語言能力程度，對課堂教學活動深入構思、精心設計、整體把握、合理布局，研究和掌握科學的教學原則，使用諸如教育學、心理學等理論，始終貫穿于英語課堂教學的每個環(huán)節(jié)中，并正確合理采用具體實施方法，比如小組活動(Group Work 或Pair Work)、話題的選擇(Topic Choice)、表演(Acting)等，來提高學生在單位時間內聽、說、讀、寫的功效，獲得理想的教學效果。

2．英語課堂教學活動設計是英語學科教學特點的需要。英語科不同于其他學科，英語學科的一個顯著特點就是實踐性強。只有通過大量的活動和訓練，才能很好地掌握和運用，正如雜技演員，他們純熟的技藝都是苦練的結果。英語課的學習也是一樣，必須有足夠的練習，學生才能逐步領會所學的知識和規(guī)則，并能逐漸自如地運用。其實踐性的特點，決定了它的課堂教學活動形式的靈活多樣，也只有通過豐富的課堂教學活動，才能使學生掌握聽、說、讀、寫的基本技能，從而熟練應用英語進行交際。而這些都有賴于設計好的教學活動，需要教師傾注心血，在條理性、趣味性、邏輯性和科學性方面下功夫。

3．通過課堂教學活動設計，不斷提高英語教師自身的教學能力的需要。英語課作為中學教育的基礎課程，有其不同一般的特殊性。素質教育觀下的英語教學，對教師提出了更高的要求。其教學特征在于：多元的課堂教學目標；適度“開放”的教學內容；“任務式”的學習活動；多樣的組織形式和變化的角色關系；互動式的課堂話語；分層次的學習任務和要求；和諧均衡的教學活動設置；健康愉悅的情感氛圍。為了達到上述要求，在課堂教學活動設計中，教師就需要查閱資料，博覽群書，猶如蜜蜂采花釀蜜，不斷充實豐富自己，最后厚積薄發(fā)，落實到設計方案中，這樣上課時才能有備無患，得心應手，才能為提高課堂教學質量提供了現(xiàn)實可能性，最終體現(xiàn)素質教育所提倡的注重教學實質、淡化教學形式的根本要求。

二、英語課堂教學活動設計的依據(jù)

1．課堂教學活動設計，首先應該依據(jù)英語教學大綱。大綱是中學英語教學和改革的綱領性文件，它提出了英語教學的目的、任務、范圍、體系、教學進度和對教學方法的基本要求，是我們進行教學活動設計、教學改革、教學評估、考試命題的依據(jù)，是衡量我們教學工作的準繩，課堂教學活動設計時必須全面、系統(tǒng)、透徹地掌握大綱的實質性內容，并貫徹到整個教學活動中去。因此，我們要認真鉆研教材，明確教學目的、任務和要求。根據(jù)英語教學特點，在設計時要把學生置于特定的英語環(huán)境之中，通過大量、反復的聽、說、讀、寫訓練，通過一定的語言實際活動，立足于現(xiàn)實，重視情感心靈交流，靈活運用，大膽創(chuàng)新，銳意改革，淘汰那些傳統(tǒng)式的教學方法，想方設法地把枯燥無味的語言材料轉變成生動活潑的活動內容。

2．英語課堂教學活動設計，應依據(jù)教材內容。課堂教學活動設計的過程，就是教師對教材內容熟悉、理解的過程，就是對教學目的、教學原則和教學方法理解分析和準備實施的過程，所以我們應努力做到吃透教材內容，理解和掌握教材的內在聯(lián)系，組織好教材，安排好課時，抓住教材中的關鍵點，突出重點，突破難點，設計好課堂教學活動。

3．課堂教學活動設計，應依據(jù)本校本班的學生特點。英語教學活動設計不僅是設計教材，設計方法，更重要的是設計如何調動學生的學習積極性，如何挖掘學生的內在潛力。作為英語教師，對自己學生的知識水平、接受能力、學習態(tài)度、興趣愛好、個性特征、學習基礎等都要有全面的了解，以便根據(jù)大多數(shù)學生的實際情況，確定教學的起點、難度、深度和廣度，根據(jù)學生個性特征和個別差異，因人而異地進行教學和輔導，同時，在設計新的教學活動時，還要重視信息的反饋，使之更適應學生知識水平和接受能力，使教師的主觀愿望與學生的客觀要求趨于統(tǒng)一。

三、英語課堂教學活動設計的模式實例

1．語言結構呈現(xiàn)的模式。即向學生呈現(xiàn)新的語言項目，激活學生接受新語言信息的認知狀態(tài)。下面以牛津初中英語7AUnit 4 中的Welcome to the unit為例。首先我們需要分析教材。本單元的功能項目是“食物”(Food)，涉及的話題有：談論最喜歡的食物、飲料、水果；進而可以了解中外飲食習慣和文化方面的差異，為之后Reading中的有關Food and lifestyles 內容做好準備。需要用到的語言項目有：有關食物、飲料等詞匯；可數(shù)、不可數(shù)名詞量的表達；句型“What’s your favourite food/drink? What would you like? How many... are there?”等。本單元的教學目的是培養(yǎng)學生掌握與飲食有關的語言基礎知識和基本技能，并能運用語言進行交際活動的能力。因此可以先向學生提問：“What things do we eat/drink?”并用實物或圖片啟發(fā)引導學生說出已學過的食物、飲料名詞，同時引出新詞并熟悉其音、形、義。教師此時應注意有意識地分出可數(shù)和不可數(shù)名詞，為下一步做鋪墊。然后用話題：“What’s your favourite food/drink?”激發(fā)學生興趣和交際動機，進行信息交流，從而熟練掌握有關詞匯。在此基礎上，再用“What would you like for breakfast/lunch/supper?”來引出量的表達。這是學生的難點，必須通過足夠使學生明了意思的實物或圖片以及大量有真實意義的操練來訓練學生準確流利地學會表達，包括口頭、筆頭表達。最后還可用“How many...”句型來強化這項技能。

2．情景對話教學的模式。這是學生對新語言項目的信息進行加工的過程，也就是練習。有了第一步的扎實的語言結構基礎，我們就可以通過教學課本中的幾個情景對話，把新的語言結構置于一個具體的情境中，顯示語言功能，從中學會運用。